A new report from the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine identifies Bhabha Crater, Mons Hadley, the Orientale Basin and the Aristarchus Plateau as high-value destinations for short-duration crewed missions beyond the lunar poles.
The four sites present distinct scientific opportunities, ranging from investigating ancient impact structures and volcanic landscapes to studying how decades of exposure to the lunar environment have affected equipment and biological materials. Together, they could help scientists reconstruct the Moon’s evolution while developing the knowledge and technologies required for longer stays on the lunar surface and future missions to Mars.
As the United States and China advance their plans for human lunar exploration, the findings highlight why the Moon’s scientific value extends well beyond the search for water.
Why Scientists Want to Explore Beyond the Lunar South Pole
The lunar south pole has attracted considerable attention because some craters remain permanently shadowed, creating conditions in which water ice may survive. These resources could eventually help support astronauts, although extracting and using them would require further technological development.
However, establishing a lunar base will require more than access to water. Scientists must understand the Moon’s geology, radiation environment, surface conditions and the practical challenges of conducting research far from Earth.
The four destinations identified in the National Academies report could help address different aspects of these challenges. Their geological features offer opportunities to investigate the Moon’s early history, while revisiting locations explored during the Apollo era could reveal how equipment and materials withstand prolonged exposure to the lunar environment.
The report also recommends developing the capability for astronauts to travel farther than the current maximum of two kilometres during an extravehicular exploration. Longer-range surface operations could enable crews to deploy instruments across wider areas and collect data over multiple lunar day-night cycles.
The objective is not simply to reach new locations, but to establish how humans can conduct increasingly complex scientific investigations on the Moon.
Bhabha Crater: Investigating the Moon’s Ancient History
Located on the Moon’s far side, Bhabha Crater offers an opportunity to study some of the oldest preserved geological features on the lunar surface. Its remote location would also make it one of the most isolated places humans have explored if astronauts were to land there.
The region could allow researchers to examine material associated with an ancient impact basin and investigate the composition and structure of the lunar crust. Samples collected from the area could help scientists reconstruct the events that shaped the Moon during its early history.
Bhabha Crater could also serve as a location for radio and optical astronomy experiments. The Moon’s far side is shielded from much of Earth’s radio interference, making it attractive for certain astronomical observations. However, the suitability of any experiment would depend on the specific location and equipment involved.
A crewed mission to the crater would present significant logistical challenges, particularly because of its distance from established landing sites and the need to maintain communications with Earth.
Despite these difficulties, the scientific findings could help researchers understand how the Moon formed and how its surface evolved over billions of years.
Mons Hadley: What Apollo 15 Can Reveal About Lunar Conditions
Mons Hadley, on the Moon’s near side, has a direct connection to the Apollo programme. Apollo 15 astronauts explored part of the region in 1971, collecting samples and conducting experiments during one of NASA’s early missions focused on extended lunar surface exploration.
Returning to the area could allow scientists to examine equipment and biological materials that have remained exposed to the lunar environment for more than five decades.
The Moon has no substantial atmosphere to shield its surface from radiation, extreme temperature changes and micrometeorite impacts. Investigating how materials have aged under these conditions could help engineers design more durable equipment for future missions.
Samples collected from the Apollo 15 site could also provide new information relevant to NASA’s Artemis programme and its broader plans for human exploration beyond the Moon.
Revisiting Mons Hadley would therefore offer more than a return to a historic Apollo landing region. The site could serve as a long-term experiment, allowing researchers to assess the effects of decades of exposure and better understand the risks and limitations of leaving equipment on the lunar surface.
Orientale Basin: Uncovering the Moon’s Geological Evolution
The Orientale Basin is one of the largest and best-preserved multiring impact structures on the Moon. Formed by an enormous collision, it contains geological features that could help scientists investigate how major impacts reshaped the lunar crust.
Impact basins are scientifically important because they expose and redistribute material from different depths. Studying the rocks and structures around Orientale could provide insights into the Moon’s internal composition and the processes that shaped its early surface.
The basin’s wide variety of geological materials makes it particularly valuable for scientific sampling. Measurements collected by astronauts, alongside data from instruments deployed on the surface, could help researchers compare different rock types and reconstruct the sequence of events that formed the region.
The site could also offer a useful setting for seismic investigations. Understanding the Moon’s internal structure and seismic activity is important for planning future infrastructure, scientific installations and long-duration missions.
Research at Orientale Basin could therefore help answer fundamental questions about lunar formation while improving scientists’ understanding of the environment in which future crews and infrastructure would operate.
Aristarchus Plateau: Exploring Lunar Volcanism and Potential Resources
The Aristarchus Plateau is one of the Moon’s most geologically diverse regions. Its volcanic features and varied terrain make it an important destination for studying how volcanic activity shaped the lunar surface.
Scientists could examine rocks and surface formations to investigate the Moon’s volcanic history, including how magma moved through its crust and how eruptions altered the surrounding landscape.
The region could also help researchers assess materials that may support future lunar exploration. Understanding the distribution and properties of lunar resources could help mission planners determine whether particular locations are suitable for scientific installations or other infrastructure.
The National Academies report also identifies the potential for establishing a space weather observatory in the region. Observations of the solar environment could contribute to improved space weather forecasting, an important consideration because solar activity can expose astronauts and spacecraft to harmful radiation.
Such an observatory would not eliminate the hazards of space travel, but it could help researchers better understand conditions affecting crews and equipment operating beyond Earth’s protective atmosphere.
How the Four Lunar Sites Could Prepare Humans for Mars
Establishing a sustained human presence on the Moon will require solving problems that extend beyond landing astronauts safely. Crews will need to explore difficult terrain, operate scientific instruments, maintain equipment and work in an environment where assistance from Earth is limited by distance and communication delays.
Each of the four proposed destinations offers different opportunities to test these capabilities. Bhabha Crater could support research into ancient lunar geology and astronomy. Mons Hadley could reveal how materials withstand prolonged exposure to space. Orientale Basin could help scientists understand the Moon’s internal structure, while Aristarchus Plateau offers opportunities to investigate volcanic processes and space weather.
The resulting findings could inform mission planning, equipment design and scientific operations during future lunar expeditions. Some of the lessons may also apply to Mars, where astronauts would face demanding surface conditions, resource constraints and limited opportunities for immediate assistance.
However, the report’s recommendations do not mean these locations are ready for human settlement. Each destination would require detailed mission planning, suitable landing systems, reliable communications and safeguards for astronaut health.
What the Recommendations Mean for the New Moon Race
The United States and China have both made human lunar exploration a major space priority. NASA’s Artemis programme aims to return astronauts to the lunar surface and build experience for longer-term exploration, while China has outlined plans for a crewed lunar landing by 2030.
The National Academies report argues that future lunar exploration should include destinations selected for their scientific value rather than concentrating exclusively on the poles. Expanding the range of locations visited could help researchers develop a more complete understanding of the Moon while testing the skills required for increasingly ambitious missions.
Astrophysicist Jack Burns captured the scientific significance of returning to the lunar surface in a comment to Scientific American: “The moon is our history book. With Apollo, we just thumbed through the first few pages.”
The four proposed destinations could help scientists uncover more of that history while addressing a practical question central to the next era of space exploration: what will it take for humans not only to reach another world, but also to work there safely and sustainably?
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